Pazyryk Ice Maiden Ink

Click image(s) to see the larger version(s).

The tattoo image comes from the Flickrstream of JJ and Special K and is licensed by Creative Commons.

The original tattoo comes from the body of the so-called Ice Maiden, a woman from the 5th century BCE buried in the Pazyryk region of what is now Siberian Russia. Hers is a unique burial as she is a lone woman buried with great honor and grave goods; her headress alone takes up a third of her coffin which was made of the sacred larch tree. She was also adorned with gold and wore a silk blouse, a rare and highly prized fabric for the time. As she was obviously wealthy and also buried with horses and many other goods it has been suggested that she may have been a priestess. Whatever the case, her tattoos feature real and mythical animals, some of which are twisted into strange shapes. The animal above looks to be a deer whose antlers end in flowers. What this meant to the ancient Siberians isn't clear but it seems apparent that they felt a reverence for nature that was important enough to be expressed permanently on skin.

You can see my previous and more detailed post about the Pazyryk tattoos here.

Ta Moko

Click image(s) to see the larger version(s).

This image comes from the Flickrstream of Nariposa and is licensed under Creative Commons.

The above image includes a fine example of Moko, the traditional Maori form of tattoo. Historically, Maori tattoos were made by chiseling lines in the skin, as opposed to puncturing, and then rubbing pigment into the lines. Pigments were made from caterpillar fungus and the darker, facial tones were made from soot and ash. Receiving Moko was an important step into adulthood and was usually accompanied by many rites and rituals. An individuals Moko not only signified status but was considered vital to attracting a mate. From Wikipedia:

Men generally received moko on their faces, buttocks (called raperape) and thighs (called puhoro). Women usually wore moko on their lips (kauae) and chins. Other parts of the body known to have moko on it include the foreheads, buttocks, thighs, neck and backs of women, and the backs, stomachs and calves of men.

Moko includes distinct patterns and designs that proclaim that the wearer is not only of Maori descent but also a lot about their history. Whakapapa is the genealogical aspect while Kaupapa expressed family or tribal stories or lessons. The beautiful and intricate designs are so fascinating that they became a danger to natives in the past.

When the islands of New Zealand were being colonized examples of Moko became so popular among the invaders that many Maori were murdered, sometimes by their own people, so that wealthy Europeans could boast ownership of the art. Historically, the heads of deceased Maori warriors were kept and dried out of respect for the dead. The Europeans liked the heads so much that some Maori began tattooing the faces of slaves and immediately beheading them and then selling them for profit. Eventually, this trade got out of hand and many Maori stopped receiving Maori altogether in order to avoid being killed. Moko also became less and less acceptable to the growing white society. For these reasons Moko almost completely died out.

Since the 1990s, however, a renewed interest in Moko has surfaced and grown as many native Maori are reviving the ways of their ancestors. Although the old form of application isn't used much anymore the symbolism and cultural importance of Moko is still very much alive. For many Maori, especially the younger generation, receiving and proudly displaying Moko is a way to reclaim their cultural identity and show family and tribal pride. As Moko is such an integral part of Maori identity it is usually considered distasteful and deeply offensive for non-Maori to wear Moko.

However, there is a similar style of tattoo design, called Kirituhi, which looks like Moko but does not contain any of the historical Maori symbolism. It has the same general shapes, style and feel of Moko but does not include Whakapapa or Kaupapa. Kirituhi is, therefore, the respectable route for a non-Maori to take if one wishes to incorporate Maori style design into their tattoos but does not wish to offend, or steal from, the Maori people and culture.

North American Indian Ink

The story of body art in North America is one of fascinating religious and spiritual significance. The art of tattoo was so widespread among North American Indians that it could justifiably be considered universal. Although many of the uses and features of tattoo were similar among various tribes they were not identical. Generally tattoos were used for four main reasons: to mark rites of passage, to signify one's clan or tribe, for healing and pain relief and to warn of a warriors abilities and therefore intimidate the enemy. The methods to apply their tattoos were generally the same throughout North America and usually consisted of sharpened bones or thorns used to pierce or puncture the skin into which a darkening agent was then applied. In 1653 the Jesuit missionary Francois-J. Bressani recorded methods used by the natives of eastern Canada:

In order to paint permanent marks on themselves they undergo intense pain. To do this they use needles, sharpened awls, or thorns. With these instruments they pierce the skin and trace images of animals or monsters, for example an eagle, a serpent, a dragon, or any other figure they like, which they engrave on their faces, their necks, their chests, or other parts of their bodies. Then, while the punctures which form the designs are fresh and bleeding, they rub in charcoal or some other black color which mixes with the blood and penetrates the wound. The image is then indelibly imprinted on the skin. This custom is so widespread that I believe that in many of these native tribes it would be impossible to find a single individual who is not marked in this way. When this operation is performed over the entire body it is dangerous, especially in cold weather. Many have died after the operation, either as the result of a kind of spasm which it produces, or for other reasons. The natives thus die as martyrs to vanity because of this bizarre custom.

If we discount Bressani's obvious lack of understanding regarding the spiritual significance of tattoos we learn a great deal about the application process. To the left we see Haida tattoo needles collected in 1883. Note how similar, yet shorter, the tools are compared to traditional foot long Japanese tattoo tools.

Tattoos for rites of passage typically signified a persons first step into adulthood. These tattoos usually consisted of lines and geometric patterns. Arapaho men tattooed three dots on their own chest to prove their manhood. Tattoos for young women were often placed on the chin and immediately told the viewer her background and marital status. To the right we see a Mojave woman with impressive facial tattoos and body art. Most rite of passage tattoos were placed upon puberty but sometimes death as well. Some tribes, including the Sioux, held that after death as a "ghost warrior" made his way to the spirit world he would be met by an old woman who would demand to see his tattoos. If the individual was unfortunate enough not to have any ink he would be denied passage to the other side and, along with his horse, be thrown back down to the Earth, doomed to wander aimlessly for eternity. This was such a strongly held belief that many elders, who had not been previously tattooed, would be tattooed as they lay on their death beds.

The natives of the Northwest Coast, including the Haida and Tlinglit, used crest tattoos to signify their clan's territory and distinguish between members of different social groups. Crests could include land and sea animals as well as geographical features and heavenly bodies. They could also include natural materials like clay or copper. To the left we see an 1886 photograph of a Haida man with a bear crest on his chest and dogfish on each arm. These crests not only told the viewer to what family group a person came from but that the person "owned" that crest and its associated usage in stories, songs and personal names. It could also denote ones ownership of a particular geographical area and the accompanying resources. While these images were not themselves worshiped they were symbols of the magical connection between the people, the land and the animals and the ancestors who won and wore them in the past.

Warriors were often known to bear tattoos signifying their personal strength and skills as well as how many kills they'd made. Jesuits reported in 1663 that an Iroquois chief had 60 tattoos on his thighs, each one representing a man he had killed with his own hands. Among the Chickasaw, and presumably other tribes, the best warriors could be easily recognized by their tattoos. Tattoos were also used for therapeutic reasons among many tribes. The Ojibwa were known to tattoo the temples, forehead and cheeks of those suffering from either toothaches or headaches. Believing the pain was caused my malevolent spirits songs and dances would be performed as part of the tattoo ceremony. The Menoltiini and many other tribes also used tattoos for curative purposes. To the right we see Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow, King of the Maquas, by John Verelst. He was one of four Mohawk chiefs who, in 1710, visited London as part of a delegation to Queen Anne.

From kids reaching puberty to warriors frightening their enemies the history of tattoo among North American Indians is fascinating to say the least. And although historical information regarding North American Indian tattoo is scant, and images even harder to find, I hope I've provided an interesting overview of its history. For more information please visit the following sites: Draadlogger Tattoo History, North American First Nations Tattoo History and America's Tattooed Indian Kings.

Pagan and NeoPagan Ink

The history of tattoos is tightly bound up with that of paganism because the first people to create and receive them were pagans or, at the very least, their ancestors whose shamanistic ways gave birth to paganism. Tattoo is one of the oldest forms of art, right after cave and rock art from prehistoric times. In fact, the ancient history of tattoo is so varied and universal that simply picking a spot on the globe reveals a rich history of body art. Throughout history tattoos served many different purposes. Some were rites of passage that marked a person’s journey into adulthood. For some peoples, a tattoo was an attempt at healing or pain relief. Some tattoos labeled a person a criminal. Others were reserved for shamans, priests and priestesses. Still more were exclusive badges of nobility or royalty. Libraries full of books could be written about the history of tattoos but, for my purposes, I’ll highlight the most well-known or popular pagan forms.

Currently, the oldest evidence we have for tattoos comes from the affectionately named Otzi the Iceman. His body was found in the Alps and is dated to approximately 3300 BCE; his is the oldest mummified body ever found. And he just happens to have over 50 tattoos. While they are not very artistic tattoos, being only lines and a few crosses, they are numerous and, considering their placement on arthritic joints, are believed to be therapeutic.

And the ancient tattoo art doesn’t stop there. Tattooed mummies from Russia dating from approximately the 2nd century BCE have been found with beautiful factual and mythical animals. In ancient Egypt tattoos were restricted to women and were oftentimes placed for therapeutic reasons. For example, a circle of dots or lines was often tattooed over the belly in a pattern reminiscent of the growth of the belly during pregnancy. Also featured on ancient Egyptian women was the god Bes.

The history of tattoo in the formerly Celtic lands is a bit sketchier. We don’t have any tattooed mummies and, of course, no first person written records. What we do have is oftentimes questionable histories from Julius Caesar and Herodian, for example. They mention the use of woad body paint and the pricking or scarring of the skin which was then rubbed with pigment, but the dates and facts are inexact. So, while Celtic tattoos are incredibly popular today we don’t know with any certainty what kind of body art the ancient Celts may have practiced.

Speaking of the modern popularity of tattoos only people living under a rock for the last decade would be unaware of the immense rise of tattoo enthusiasts. You never can tell who might have tattoos because they’re not just for bikers, prisoners and gang members anymore. Mothers of small children have tattoos, doctors and lawyers and scientists have ink as do college professors, mechanics, artists, homemakers and everyone in between. Tattoos have become so main stream that several national and international newspapers have regular tattoo and body art sections. As the quality of the art has grown so have its adherents. Many artists are creating museum worthy tattoos. And it seems nearly everyone wants to carry this form of art with them forever. And neopagans are no exception.

As we all know neopagans are not always in a position to freely express their faith, their beliefs or their values. Whether it’s because of narrow-minded family members, on-the-job tensions, custody battles or simply one’s location some of us have to keep a low profile. But tattoos hidden under clothes can be an amazing answer to this problem. Even when one cannot show it off one knows it’s there. If a neopagan doesn’t feel comfortable openly wearing a pentagram or a Thor’s Hammer, etc. these symbols tattooed on the skin can provide comfort and an amazing sense of empowerment.

But that’s only part of the appeal that tattoos hold for neopagans of every stripe. Many of us tend to be freethinking, tree-hugging, nature lovin’, creative and individualistic spirits who were stifled by the religions of our youth. We are a faith set apart by our differences from the dominant Abrahamic religions which are generally anti-tattoo. Those folks say that tattoos are pagan and they are right. By getting and proudly wearing tattoos we are further distancing ourselves from the religions we knew as children.

Many of us consider our bodies to be temples and what better way to honor our gods or protective spirits than with beautiful art on our bodies? Tattoos representing specific deities, the elements, etc. enable our bodies to not only become temples but altars. Tattoos are magic for the skin, the needles entering the skin is a powerful ritual. By enduring the pain, letting it pass through us and owning it we are embracing the primal within ourselves. We are proving ourselves before the gods. Not only is the ritual of getting a tattoo a life changing one but the tattoo itself will last forever as a testament to our pagan ways.

Pazyryk Tattoos

This is an outline drawing of a fish tattoo from a man of the Pazyryk culture; he was discovered in the 1940s. (A larger image of some of his tattoos can be seen in my new title banner.) The Pazyryk people were nomadic horsemen of the mountains in what is now Siberian Russia who flourished between the sixth and second centuries BCE. Their burials were rich troves of artifacts including saddles, textiles, tools, horses, hash pipes, cannabis and tattooed people. Although no tattoo-specific tools were found the Pazyryk people did make fine embroidery with extremely small needles; it has been concluded that these needles did double duty as tattoo tools.

According to this essay on the history of tattoo:

The best preserved tattoos were images of a donkey, a mountain ram, two highly stylized deer with long antlers and an imaginary carnivore on the right arm. Two monsters resembling griffins decorate the chest, and on the left arm are three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat. On the front of the right leg a fish extends from the foot to the knee. A monster crawls over the right foot, and on the inside of the shin is a series of four running rams which touch each other to form a single design.

There are also a series of small circles along the spine that are believed to be therapeutic in nature. Interestingly, modern Siberians practice this form of tattoo to relieve the pain associated with back problems. In the second half of the 20th century more burials and bodies were discovered. All have tattoos of real and mythical animals.

P.S. Be sure to check out this Hermitage News link for more information about this fascinating culture. And thanks to Luc for the link!!

Betty Broadbent

This is the fabulous Betty Broadbent. She was the first person to be inducted into the Tattoo Hall of Fame and was probably the first famous woman with a full body suit tattoo. Born in 1909 she first encountered the world of tattoo at the tender age of 14. She eventually got a full suit from such pioneering tattoo artists as Charlie Wagner, Joe Van Hart, Jack Redcloud, Tony Rineager and Red Gibbons (who became her husband). She became a star in the sideshow circuit as one of the few heavily tattooed women and lived the circus life for some 40 years. She worked with all the major shows of the time: Ringling Brothers Barnum and Bailey Circus, Cole Brothers, Sells-Floto and others. She left the stage for a few years to perform with a wild west show and during the off season she tattooed in San Francisco. She retired from public life in 1967, settled in Florida and died peacefully in her sleep in 1983.

These are the bare facts of her life and about all I can find out about her online. I'm surprised and quite disappointed that I can't find any images of her own tattoo art on the internet. She may have been the first female tattoo artist. She was certainly one of the most famous female tattoo artists and I'm very interested in learning about the quality of her work. Considering how famous a figure she was/is it would seem natural for her art to be showcased somewhere but I've come up empty. She must have been tattooing through most of the 60s so there are surely people still alive with her art on their bodies, but I can't seem to find any of it. Perhaps there is a book out there somewhere but if anyone knows of online images of her work I'd love to hear about it.

Australian Scarification

According to a Discovery News article ancient Australian art featured motifs that made it onto ancient islanders' skin.

"Distinctive design conventions can be considered markers of social interaction so, in a way (they are) a cultural signature of sorts that archaeologists can use to understand ways people were interacting in the past," author Liam Brady of Monash University's Center for Australian Indigenous Studies, told Discovery News.

For the study, published in the latest issue of the journal Antiquity, Brady documented rock art drawings; images found on early turtle shell, stone and wood objects, such as bamboo tobacco pipes and drums; and images that were etched onto the human body through a process called scarification.

"In a way, a scarred design could be interpreted as a tattoo," Brady said. "It was definitely a distinctive form of body ornamentation and it was permanent since the design was cut into the skin."

"Evidence for scarification is primarily via (19th century) anthropologists -- mainly A.C. Haddon -- who took black and white photographs of some designs, as well as drawing others into his notebooks in the late 1800's," he added....Brady determined that within the body art, rock art and objects, four primary motifs often repeated: a fish headdress, a snake, a four-pointed star, and triangle variants. The fish headdress, usually made of a turtle shell decorated with feathers and rattles, was worn during ceremonies and has, in at least one instance, been linked to a "cult of the dead."

The triangular designs, on the other hand, were often scarred onto women's skin and likely indicated these individuals were in mourning.

I just love it when connections like these are made. And I'm especially pleased since these snake designs inspired my own spiral snake tattoo. (Which I can't post because the USB cord I use with my camera has quit on me.)

Ancient Egypt

Kemet, the name ancient Egyptians used to name their homeland, has a fascinating and complex history of tattoo. Our knowledge of ancient Egyptian tattoo comes to us from the Middle Kingdom, about 4000 years ago. To the left is an image of the earthly remains of Amunet, an Egyptian woman who had been a priestess of Hathor and probably a special concubine to the Pharoah Mentuhotep. We know this because his name is written on her wrappings and she appears alongside other concubines in temple art. Of all the tombs in Metuhotep's complex hers was the only one not plundered by thieves. Notice the patterns on her abdomen; they are right where the belly expands during pregnancy.

The oldest known non-geometric tattoo pattern also comes to us from ancient Egypt. The mummies of two dancing girls found under the tomb of Hatshepsut have images of the the god Bes who, among other things, was a protector of children and women in labor. Interestingly, the Bes tattoos are on the upper thighs which obviously makes the images close to the newborn child.

To date, no Egyptian males have been found with tattoos. There are only female mummies with tattoos, which, along with the placement of the tattoos, leads many to believe they were therapeutic art concerned with pregnancy and childbirth. Strangely enough, there is ancient Egyptian art that clearly shows men with tattoos but, so far, no male Egyptian mummies have been found with ink of any kind.

The Iceman

These are just a few of the 50-some tattoos on the body of Otzi the Iceman, who has the distinction of being the oldest mummified human body ever found. He died around 5300 years ago, apparently as a result of murder, and was quickly buried by ice which kept his body from deteriorating completely. Being that many of his tattoos are near arthritic parts of his body it is widely believed that they were meant to be therapeutic. His tattoos are quite simple; no elaborate images here, they are only lines and groups of lines.

As you can see, his tattoos are all over his body. And while some of the tattoos appear near arthritic spots the same can't be said for all of Otzi's tattoos. The others may be purely artistic or signs of status. Otzi was not an average guy as he lived past the age of 50, double the average age of most folks in 3300 BCE. So, he must have been well-fed and had access to the medical care of the day. I find Otzi and his tattoos fascinating. Was he a nobleman of some sort to be so lucky to live so long? Was he a shaman to be blessed with so much ancient ink? We'll probably never know but I still thinks it's awesome that the oldest human body ever found had numerous tattoos.

P.S. I also think it's awesome that hometown boy Brad Pitt has Otzi on his arm.